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BENNETT 


* x Fellow, Leos Institute } 
ey British Architects 


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ave Ms Beh assumes ever-in- 
sing ‘importance. Contemporary designers are oi 
deat with new problems, complicated and unex- 
pected. They must | create concrete str roctures with 
aah “a bea ety © yy their own, free from all ras of 
conform neither ‘to classi nor “hed, 
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“It is possible that the day of the Renais- 
sance is passing and that a period of more 
original design is at hand. It may be that 
the advent of new developments in steel and 
concrete were needed to provide an impetus 
of sufficient importance for the designer to 
cast off the restrictions imposed by tradition 
and to produce new forms and new com- 
positions which would arise naturally from 
the whole of the conditions governing the 
production of building. 


“The immense importance of this move- 
ment it is impossible to overestimate: it 
represents a new and a live attitude towards 
design; it represents an amount of originality 
of thought which has not been called into 
being at any period since the Greeks evolved 
a perfect architecture of masonry and the 
Romans evolved an ability to solve con- 
structional problems which to them were of 
unprecedented magnitude.” 


Price $10.00 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
IN CONCRETE 


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caves ‘ 
ae 


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mRCHITECTURAL DESIGN 
IN CONCRETE 


BY 


Dee BENIN Belek 


Panes bakes LLON. Ee). O ab. 


THE PHOTOGRAPHS COMPILED BY 
Poke ve RBURY, Hon, A.R.I.B. A; 


OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
AMERICAN BRANCH... NEW YORK 


1927 


PRINTED AND MADE IN GREAT BRITAIN — 


oe aay 


WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LIMITED, PRIN1 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


For various reasons contemporary architects have been forced to regard concrete 
as a building material of increasing importance and to give it a place of prominence 
in design which was unknown in the nineteenth century ; in fact, so foreign has 
been the use of concrete to English construction that superficially many are inclined 
to regard it as a new material. It is, of course, common knowledge that this is not 
the case, and that in many forms concrete has been developed in previous periods 
so that it has been of great importance in the erection of famous buildings. 

In all early buildings lack of mathematical knowledge and of the exact strength of 
Early Historical materials has tended to produce close spacing of heavy columns, 
Construction. = Jarge beams and spans giving the maximum amount of margin to 
the strength of material, necessarily involving a considerable amount of encumbrance 
on plan and very high cost. 

An examination of the plan of an Egyptian building such as the temple at Karnak 
Egyptian reveals an extraordinary area of construction, and this massivity is 
Planning. repeated in elevation and perspective. The Egyptian apparently 
accepted absence of light and restricted planning as necessities, and as to a large 
extent they suited the mystery of Egyptian religion, the incentive towards improved 
lighting and freer planning was small. 

Colossal expenditure of labour and material under any other social conditions 
would alone have caused a revolution in method ; but in Egypt the limitless amount 
of unpaid labour which was available prevented high cost from being a serious 
factor. 

Even bearing in mind these factors, it is strange that knowledge came so slowly 
and that anything that could properly be called progress in construction was absent 
throughout the whole period of Egyptian work. This does not affect the undoubted 
impressiveness of Egyptian architecture acquired as a result of its massive and almost 
superhuman quality. 

In Greek architecture a very serious attempt was made to use masonry in a more 
logical manner, and the figures published by Guadet have shown 
very clearly that the majority of Greek temples have been designed 
so that the maximum span of the stone lintol has been the basis of the proportion 
adopted for the colonnade, and that possibly the plans of the Parthenon, and 
other temples, were laid down so that they could be roofed by means of marble 
slabs. Columns were therefore spaced not at the dictates of personal taste or the 
idiosyncrasies of design, but according to the needs of construction. Early stone 
columns were exceedingly massive, but as the style progressed proportions were 
rapidly refined and the area of the columns assumed dimensions which were in 
some measure related to the work which they were called upon to perform, That 


I 


Greek Masonry. 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


the Greek architect had some knowledge of the strength of his material would also 
seem to be indicated by the use of Ionic and Corinthian proportions which have 
been accepted by many modern designers as suited to the actual carrying of loads, 
Roman In Roman architecture the need for providing large and un- 
Construction. obstructed spaces led to the exercise of considerable ability. 

Piers and columns were combined with arches and beams in such a way that an 
ever-increasing area was free from supports, and concrete was brought into use as 
a means of solving the problem of the clear plan. The Pantheon is one of the best 
known examples of a clear space, well lighted and completely unobstructed. 

It is true that it represents the simplest form of dome construction, showing a 
hemisphere surmounting a circular building, and its lighting, by a central 
unglazed eye, also represents the simplest way of piercing a dome. But the fact 
remains that by means of a successful use of the wall and the dome, and by the 
employment of an exceptionally able combination of tile and concrete, a circular 
covered floor space was created with an internal diameter of approximately 
150 feet. 

Byzantine architecture solved many similar problems, but aimed at reducing labour 
Byzantine and cost as well as at lightening construction. Thus in place of 
Vaults. the solid static masses of the Pantheon it employed the dome and 
semi-dome in juxtaposition, it resisted thrust with counter-thrust instead of by inert 
mass. It reduced the thickness of the outer skin of its domes and pierced its walls, 
arriving at the wonderful plans of S. Sophia and S. Mark. 

In the Middle Ages Gothic architecture progressed from the monastic churches 
The Middle of Norman times, with their massive columns, heavy arches, and 
Ages. small windows, all typical of primitive construction, until it reached 
the slender shafts, great spans, vast areas, and magnificent windows of the perpen- 
dicular period. All these types of construction, however, were applied to particular 
classes of building, and moreover were used where, for one reason or another, cost 
was a matter of secondary consideration. 


§ 


It is interesting to investigate the constructional methods of such periods and 
Roman Concrete More particularly to examine in detail the buildings in which 
Building. concrete has proved itself to be a material of great possibilities, 
Instinctively the mind turns to Roman architecture, where concrete formed the 
basis of many of the most impressive buildings which were erected about the first 


century of our era, and in some ways this system of construction is an exceedingly 
valuable study as a basis for modern work. 


2 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Sociologically it permitted a small number of highly skilled craftsmen to set out 
the building, to build the angles, groins and other features which formed the basis 
of the structure, and then allow slaves and labourers, who were untrained and often 
unintelligent, to fill in mass concrete between these angles and corners to form a 
substantial whole. 

In Roman civilisation slave labour was an important factor, and therefore a system 
of construction which permitted the employment of an unlimited number of slaves 
was in itself an attraction, 

The Roman engineer or architect would seem to have developed his system in such 
a way that by using great thicknesses for walls and domes he was independent 
of the bad mixing of concrete, bad filling, inefficient supervision, or even actual 
malice, Thus occasional bad workmanship entailed no serious danger to his 
structure. Possibly it was for this reason that his piers were of vast area, his domes 
of massive construction, his haunches heavily loaded, his thrusts taken by weight 
rather than by counter-thrust. Thus design and construction and the conditions 
under which buildings were erected were closely inter-related ; under essentially 
practical conditions buildings were produced of magnificent architectural effect. 


§ 


In some ways the social system which made concrete construction so suitable to 
The Parallel of Roman life finds a parallel to-day and may possibly become even 
a a k, more in accordance with the conditions of work of the next genera- 
oeerm WOF* tion, since the tendency of all industries appears to be in the 
direction of the employment of a small number of highly skilled men and a large 
number of operatives who are unskilled or only slightly skilled. On the other hand, 
several important factors of present-day building were non-existent in Roman times, 
and these must be appreciated if a proper comparison is to be drawn between classic 
architecture and contemporary work. These modern factors may be summarised 
as follows :— 
(1) Economy of cost. 

The Difference (2) Reduction of period of erection. 

area a8 (3) Maximum amount of daylight in all rooms. 

Works. (4) Reduction of number and extent of obstructions on plan. 
(5) Relatively low floor heights. 


If the foregoing points are considered in conjunction with the proportion of 
unskilled labour employed, it will be realised that the parallel between Roman and 
modern concrete work differs on fundamental points, and this difference must affect 
the design of modern structures. Before proceeding with this investigation it is 


3 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


well to see how Roman and Byzantine designers dealt with the finish of the buildings 
which they erected, and in which concrete construction was employed. 

These early builders had no hesitation in using one material as a constructional 
element and covering it with another and purely decorative element 


The Architec- 3 3 
tural Casing which was employed as a facing. The cheapest and commonest 
of Concrete. decorative element of this kind was stucco, and it was of course 


employed extensively in all classes of work. The stucco was coloured in plain 
washes in unimportant places, and in interiors and possibly exteriors gave rise to 
the system of painted decoration which is called “* Pompetian.” It is not too 
extravagant to imagine that the development of concrete building may see sub- 
stantial development of the art of conventional painted decoration externally and 
internally. In addition to painted stucco the Romans employed marble sheeting 
and marble mosaic and produced the magnificent interiors with which all are 
familiar. It is of the greatest value to note that the Roman and Byzantine systems, 
which accepted the principle annunciated above, are in many ways finding 
their counterpart in architecture to-day, where the builder and decorator seem 
to be steadily drifting apart although both are still controlled and employed by 
the architect. 

By making the wali independent of the finished covering it is possible to employ 
one man or set of men to erect the carcase and another man or set of men to put 
on the decorative covering, and it may be that factors over which the designer has 
no control will dictate the procedure which this system indicates. 

One other point in connection with Roman building in concrete is important, and 
that is the fact that the massive concrete domes which were erected were devoid 
of thrust as soon as the concrete was set. 


Passing from ancient to contemporary work, it is first necessary to visualise the 
Riementennt elements of modern concrete construction. These may consist of 


Modern Concrete (a) pre-cast concrete blocks, (b) mass concrete. Each of these main 
Sra rt On edivisions) however, has a number of subdivisions, which appre- 
ciably alter the character of the finished work. Thus concrete blocks may be made 
of semi-dry material pressed into a mould, producing a more or less satisfactory 
surface, but incidentally having a measure of porosity which brings them below the 
standard of building which is expected in large and important structures. This 
_ type of concrete block, for purposes of economy, is usually made in such a way 
that the units are directly proportioned to the thickness of the walls, and its use 
has so far been largely confined to the erection of cottages. It has yet to be 
proved that these blocks wear satisfactorily over long periods. 


4 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Pre-cast blocks of other characters, however, are becoming increasingly important 
“ Artificial as building units and are usually described as “‘ artificial stone.’’ It 
Stone.” is perhaps unfortunate that it should have been thought necessary 
for commercial purposes to use this term, since it tends to suggest that the basis 
of the design of such a building should be that of a stone structure, and that no 
appreciable alteration in conception is required to produce a thoroughly satisfactory 
building. Even the so-called artificial stone block, however, is manufactured in 
two distinct categories :— 


(a) With a rough concrete backing and a fine concrete face. 
(6) With the same density of concrete throughout. 


Concrete blocks of this description have important points of construction which are 
capable of considerable use in designing; thus mouldings can be produced with 
practically no increase in cost over that of plain work, suggesting that considerable 
richness may be a characteristic of the material, while in the hands of a skilful 
sculptor the concrete can be carved before it is set, so that the finest and richest 
modelling may be introduced into it with one-tenth of the effort which is necessary 
to produce the same effect in stone. One or two modern artists in England have 
indicated the extreme value of work of this kind, notable amongst them being : 
Mr. Gilbert Bayes, Mrs. Pheebe Stabler, and Mr. Doyle Jones. A treatment yet in 
its infancy may prove to have a far-reaching influence on the production of concrete 
buildings. 

There is, however, considerable interest in dealing with in situ concrete buildings, 
In situ where external form is produced as a direct result of the construc- 
Concrete. tional system, and where the finished appearance of the building 
is attained by the use of suitable moulds in situ, Up to the present there have been 
relatively few cases where the building has been left exactly as it came from the 
false work, and it may be that it is impossible to design false work which will give 
a thoroughly satisfactory finished surface. An increasing use is, however, being 
made of the original false work to form the design and details of the building so 
that when the wood boxes are struck the architectural treatment is complete except 
for a skimming coat of plaster. 


§ 
Proceeding from the consideration of ancient concrete building and the discussion 
Principles of of the elements of modern concrete buildings, it is necessary to 


Modern Design. visualise accurately the exact importance of the principles of design 
in modern work, since these must form the basis of the work of every modern 
architect. (a) In contemporary opinion it is an axiom of architecture that the 


5 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


purpose of the building must be evident from an examination of its exterior. No 
longer will public taste accept as it did in the days of the great revivals one type 
of design for a church, museum, or railway station, or regard an aspect normally 
associated with a cathedral as a correct interpretation of the requirements of an 
insurance office. It follows, therefore, that if this expression of purpose is to find 
its place in the exterior of a modern building, the design of that building must 
arise directly from considerations of plan, of lighting, of situation, and of con- 
struction. (6) The provision of material requirements is of ever-increasing 
importance—a modern building must exactly comply with its programme since 
contemporary ideas of financial and practical considerations have relegated, possibly 
for all time, submission to inconvenience, merely because the architect wishes to 
produce some preconceived effect. 

It is expected that the modern building will provide exactly for the needs of its 
occupants, and that any decoration, ornamentation, or architectural effect must be 
obtained without interfering with the satisfactory use of the building ; it must be 
obtained in a straightforward and economical manner, This is not to say that the 
final design will necessarily be austere or that it may not have features of the greatest 
possible richness and interest, but it is indicated that such effects must be obtained 
in a logical and direct manner. (c) A modern building, moreover, 
must of necessity be original, since originality is proclaimed as 
an expression of individuality, and individuality in all arts is a contemporary 
characteristic. It is of the greatest possible importance, therefore, to realise 
that if this requirement of design is fulfilled any system of copyism is entirely 
eliminated, 

Modern design tending, therefore, to disdain the use of historical forms, it is 
possible that a virile style will arise, as the result of efforts upon the part of architects, 
to obtain original and effective buildings from the use of constructional forms, 
handled with originality and decorative effect. Plainness of purpose and economy 
of means will be important features in these original designs, and beyond any 
question the use of concrete lends itself to originality of treatment, because the 


absence of the precedent of similar work in the architecture of the ages forces the 
designer to think in a fresh vein. 


Originality. 


§ 


Modern construction is characterised by a number of important features which 
‘Modern will form the basis of any logical system of design which it 
Construction. inspires. 
The first and most important of these is the use of wide spans and slender supports, 
which, taken together, lay out proportions hitherto foreign to building. Proportion 


6 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


dictates design and sets the key to which all detail must be worked. It provides 
the salient characteristics of the composition of which it is part. 

Thus proportion, coupled with the continuity of main supports throughout the 
Continuous Ver- height of the building, is the visible effect of a fundamental change 
tical Support. — in constructional methods, for all systems of building prior to the 
advent of steel and reinforced concrete obtained height by raising one story, 
providing a covering platform or beam, and then raising another story. It was a 
necessary part of nearly all previous constructional systems that the continuity of 
the vertical support should be broken at each floor level, and in the early days of 
steel construction this same break of continuity was maintained. In a very short 
time, however, architects and engineers discovered that far better results were 
secured if the column or stanchion rose in a continuous line from basement to roof. 
Architects in England imbued with the tradition of the Renaissance endeavoured 
to reflect this continuity of story in their designs by employing the colossal order 
of Palladio, ignoring the fact that by so doing they created width as well as height, 
thereby seriously obstructing the area of facade available for lighting and intensifying 
the difficulties of construction by rendering necessary a very great thickness of wall 
or the introduction of some type of thick support or double stanchion in the lower 
stories. A design which follows the evolution of concrete construction and combines 
the wide span, the slender support, and the continuous vertical member immediately 
begins to achieve a peculiar distinction, which by virtue of the fact that it has arisen 
from the constructive method employed and that this constructive method is 
different from that of any other epoch becomes at once ‘‘ modern ”’ in the best 
sense of the word. Incidentally a number of extremely valuable 
facts are open for investigation, and above them all is the dominating 
idea of verticality as distinct from the old horizontality of the classic tradition. In 
some ways the spirit of Gothic architecture pervades this phase of building, yet the 
standard of craftsmanship, scarcity of labour, and ecclesiastical spirit, which were 
the dominating features of Gothic building, have ceased to exist, and the apparent 
similarity of form has no connection in fundamental fact. Although, therefore, to 
the casual observer there appears to be a distinct connection between the archi- 
tectural motifs of the Middle Ages and the general characteristics of a few modern 
concrete buildings, closer investigation reveals differences which are of a far-reaching 
character. 

A number of architects in different parts of the world have attempted to handle 
designs which logically develop the constructional features of a concrete building, 
and a survey of the results of their efforts, with this particular point in mind, will 
probably crystallise the trend of contemporary thought better than any amount of 
description. 


Verticality. 


7 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Verticality carried to its utmost limit has been the keynote in the design of the 
Hollywood terminal building at Los Angeles, California, by Morgan. Walls & 
Clements (Plate XL). In studying this building it should be noted that, although it 
possesses a Gothic atmosphere, this suggestion of medizvalism has appeared, not as 
a result of an attempt to impose a Gothic design upon a structure having no Gothic 
elements, but as a result of accepting the constructional principle of the building and 
forcing it to become the basis of the design. This building demonstrates the fact 
that it is a motif of modern as well as of medizval construction to carry a vertical 
support from basement to roof. It isa feature of concrete construction no less than 
of medieval masonry to emphasise a wide bay and to fill it with a 
subsidiary pier. Thus the main constructive element is repeated 
as a number of bays on the facade, and a suitable lighting element is obtained by 
dividing these bays with subsidiary vertical features. 

It might be contended that up to this point an engineer, devoid of architectural 
Architecture and training, could have produced an equally satisfactory building ; but 
Construction. architecture consists of an ability to handle constructional elements 
so that they create a beautiful whole, and in this case the architects have succeeded 
in displaying the constructive elements of the building in such a way that the result 
is exceedingly impressive. 

It is fascinating and instructive to visualise the interplay of structure and design 
in this building. Its lighting units are well distributed: its columns are no larger 
than calculation shows to be necessary: its decoration has not absorbed valuable 
land area or trespassed upon the demands of practical use; yet it is architecture 
and not engineering, it has personality and distinction, and looks as if it might 
have been produced as a pure conception of architecture instead of being evolved 
as a practical proposition. It was in this manner that the medieval church builders 
handled their designs and the Greek artists their temples. 

A similar vertical motive has been employed in the building for the American 
News Co., New York (Arch, Russell T. Cory, Plate XXXIX), where the construc- 
tive unit is emphasised and the lighting unit is suitable for the type of building 
and the kind of rooms which combine to form its whole. Probably the archi- 
tectural value of the American News Co.’s building (Plate XXXIX) is less than 
that of the Terminal building, but limits of cost and other unavoidable con- 
siderations may have forced these conditions upon the designer. 

That the continuity of the vertical support is not a mere caprice of one designer 
or of one type of design is shown by the frequency with which it is appearing in 
modern work in all parts of the world, and special attention should be given to 
the way in which it has been handled architecturally in the exteriors of the factory 
at Stockholm by Ture Sellman (Plate LIV), the Shredded Wheat factory at 


8 


Subdivision. 


ocr Lo MwA lL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Welwyn by Louis de Soissons & A. W. Kenyon (Plate LVII), (18) Munich, 
Bavaria, Water Tower, Bavarian Motor Works, by Professor Otto Orlando Kurz 
(Plate LX), while interiors display the same constructional element as shown by 
(10) Staircase detail (Plate XXXIV), (11) Hamburg, “‘ Gewerbehaus ” Main Stair- 
case (Plate XXXII), and (12) Hamburg, School of Arts and Crafts, Staircase, by 
Fritz Schumacher (Plate LXXXVI). 

Shapes and features_once created have a fascination of their own, and the 
high narrow opening reappears in the Radio Tower at Kootwyk, Holland, by 
J. M. Luthman (Plate LXIV), and (18) Munich, Bavaria, Water Tower (Plate LX), 
although possibly these are mere piercings of flat walls and are not necessarily 
demanded by the architectural development of constructional features. 

An extraordinarily fascinating variation of this theme appears in the Church at 
The Work of Le Raincy, in Paris, by Messrs. A. & G. Perret (Plates XXIV, 
A. & G. Perret. XXV, XXVI, XXVII). This church, by its strangeness of form, 
breaks away from ecclesiastical tradition, and to that extent may offend the 
religious views of some; but from the point of view of design its enrichment has 
been developed by the use of concrete forms employed to produce on the exterior 
an intensely vertical treatment with large lighting spaces, and in the interior to 
accept the practical requirements of a church by using the slender supports made 
possible by the use of reinforced concrete and to fill the spaces between the 
principal structural members with a lace-like tracery of straight lines, arising from 
a logical and reasonable use of concrete forms. The scale of the church is elusive. 
The multiplicity of its members, the very narrow proportions of its tower, give it a 
strange appeal which leaves the spectator divided between admiration of its skill 
and originality and anger for its disdainful abandonment of all recognised forms. 
It lacks repose, yet it is an extraordinarily fascinating structure. 

A second attempt to produce a similar design by the same architects is shown in 
the church at St. Denis (Plates XXVIII, XXIX). The exterior of the nave of this 
church is in some ways more satisfying than that at Le Raincy, as its square forms 
are more restful and the semi-solidity of occasional piers gives a feeling of greater 
stability to the whole. The outline of the tower loses in virility and is in some 
ways a poor climax to the intensely original treatment of the whole. 

Verticality still possessing an unmistakable classic appearance is not entirely 
Modern Classic impossible and is seen at its best in (5), Finsing, Bavaria, Water 
Work. Power Station, by Professor Otto Orlando Kurz (Plate LII), and (6) 
Leipzig, Fair Exhibition Hall, by Baurat Pusch (Plate VII), and in the design of 
the factory at Stockholm, by Ture Sellman (Plate LIV). 

Referring back to (6) Leipzig, Fair Exhibition Hall, by Baurat Pusch (Plate 
VII), the distinction between the classic colonnade, which was obviously the 


9 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


underlying motive, and the way in which the concrete structure has been handled, 
is a very valuable example of the possibility of adapting an accepted architec- 
tural feature to a new material and making it effective. 

The continuous vertical element which has just been cited as an outstanding 
The Wide Span feature of concrete and steel construction has, however, a counter- 
in Design. part which at first sight seems to be a distinct contradiction of 
terms; this second salient feature is the wide span. Previous periods of great 
building have rarely known the wide opening of shallow height which is so common 
a feature of industrial design. It is the result of the combination of the low floor 
to floor height of the many-storied structure with a demand for maximum lighting 
area of the power of steel to cover wide spaces without the need for substantial depth. 
These wide shallow openings like continuous vertical members appear again and 
again in modern design, and since the proportion of the openings differs so greatly 
from those with which the eye is familiar, many designers find it difficult to think 
in the terms which construction dictates, and to entirely dissociate from their minds 
the whole tradition of the high narrow opening, a difficulty, moreover, which is 
emphasised by the fact that the spectator is familiar with the narrow opening and 
is suddenly presented with something which necessitates a readjustment of view, 
by no means easy. 

The Garage in Paris, by Messrs. A. & G. Perret (Plate LV), is a good example of 
the wide proportion in openings where maximum daylight has been combined with 
minimum construction. This design also shows a skilful combination of the wide 
opening with the continuous vertical support, although the facade loses cohesion by 
the introduction of powerful circular fenestration in the centre window. The difficulty 
of combining the continuous vertical column and the wide opening in a satisfactory 
manner is indicated by a study of the Shredded Wheat Factory at Welwyn Garden 
City (Plate LVIT); an element of uncertainty of intention seems to prevent com- 
plete acceptance of the architectural scheme. The wide opening appears again in 
the illustration of the Auto Club at Los Angeles, California, by Hunt and Burns 
(Plate XLV), the High School at Healdsbury, California, by W. H. Weeks (Plate 
LXXXV), which has beautifully proportioned subdivision, and in examples from 
different classes of building shown by (19) Cassel, Germany, Factory, Carpenter’s 
Shop, by Curt Von Brocke (Plate XLIX); (15) and (16) Paris, Private Houses, 
by Le Corbusier (Plate LXIX); (1) Paris, House, by Andre Lurcat; and (2) 
Paris, House and Studio, by A, & G. Perret (Plate LXXI). 

_ The next quality of concrete which must receive attention is its monolithic 
Monolithic character. This feature is new to the designer who has hitherto 
Concrete. dealt with all large surfaces as composed of a number of small 
units, and has used the divisions of these units as a means of giving scale and interest 


IO 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


to his design. A monolith is impressive if its size and unity can be appreciated, and 
if the ability to express these qualities can be acquired a new group of compositions 
should be realised. If monolithic unity is considered alone, the most successful 
design illustrated here is undoubtedly that of the Einstein Tower by Eric Mendelsohn 
(Plate LXII). In this design the rounded corners, the splays, the broadly recessed 
reveals, the battered faces and absence of mouldings make the tower and the rooms 
at its base look as if they were created by the sweep of a giant hand. It is even 
difficult to imagine the building growing course by course or by the aid of scaffold- 
ing. It is true that the unique nature of the subject lends itself to an original 
handling, but this does not detract from the brilliance of the brain which could 
conceive so unified a composition. 

A monolithic character may, however, be imparted to a concrete building without 
necessarily employing unusual shapes or a treatment which achieves such superlative 
originality. Absence of conventional mouldings and, above all, the absence of a 
crowning cornice do much to create this feeling of a unified mass, and the quality 
of the monolith then becomes one of many valuable attributes of a sound design. 
Several of the buildings here illustrated can claim a part of the distinction achieved 
by this means, and in this connection mention may be made of the Auto Club, by 
Hunt and Burns (Plate XLV) and Elks’ Temple, Los Angeles, California, by 
Curlett and Beekman (Plate XLII). 

A further study of (7) Cologne, Germany, Restaurant, built over Tower of Old 
Fort, by Wilhelm Rephahn (Plate VI), will show that the Light House structure is 
essentially suitable for its purpose, achieving real economy of ground space and 
monolithic design by the use of a type of construction possible only in concrete. 
No brick or masonry building would have appeared as this building appears, yet 
it is not an eccentric design, neither does its individuality descend to any form of 
eccentricity. 

In design (8) Cassel, Germany, Coal Bunker and Boiler House, by Curt Von 
Brocke (Plate XLVID, this monolithic atmosphere is present. It is a building 
which has probably come into existence as the result of purely practical require- 
ments of a simple engineering character, yet there is a sense of architectural 
fitness which, carried slightly further, would have made it a building of very real 
architectural distinction. 

The East Surrey Water Works at Purley, designed by A. G. Wallis, Gilbert 
and Partners (Plate LVI), has also attained a solidity of effect, coupled with a 
modernity of treatment, which is extremely suitable to the material in which it is 
erected. 

Its vast windows and simple subdivisions naturally arise from the conditions of 
the problem and from the materials employed ; they are logical and sound, they 


ag 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


have interest and intellectual appeal, and therefore fulfil many of the qualities 
which appear to be indispensable to good design. 

Concrete has been successfully used for the construction of buildings which have 
Concrete in Tra- been designed on traditional lines, and in some cases adjustments 
ditional Design. have been made in line or detail which appear to be peculiarly 
fitted to the material. 

Outstanding examples of this type of work are the High Schools at Piedmont 
(Plates LXXIX, LXXX) and Mountain View, California (Plate LXXXITI), both 
by W. H. Weeks. These buildings have an unmistakable Italian atmosphere, 
yet the contrast of rough surface and flat wall which has been used with an 
exceedingly skilful placing of ornament have produced buildings which have a great 
deal of architectural attraction, as well as appearing to be very suitable for use in 
a concrete structure. Ornament of a repeating character again reflects the material, 
inasmuch as it allows a mould to be made for one small section and for a large 
amount of ornament to be cast from the same mould. The low relief of the 
ornament gives it a feeling of texture of which more will be said later. 

W. H. Weeks has used Italian models in a large number of his buildings, but in 
each instance manages to give them an atmosphere of personality which raises them 
above the realm of mere copyism. 

Finally, the Radio Tower at Kootwyk, Holland, by J. M. Luthman (Plate 
LXIV), has a very impressive silhouette which very nearly achieves the monolithic 
excellence of the Eric Mendelsohn building. 

Whether or not architects, as a whole or contemporary taste, are satisfied with this 
emphasis upon the monolithic qualities of the material, is for the present of no 
moment. It is sufficient that the buildings appear to have been produced from 
concrete moulded in situ, constructed as one mass and therefore possessing logical 
unity to a very marked degree. Some of these buildings have a very special 
purpose, which may have contributed to their peculiar character, but nevertheless 
only men possessing marked individuality would have been able to visualise the 
use of a new material so completely and to have carried out the detail with such 
singleness of purpose. 


§ 


Passing from exterior to interior design, it is well again to recall that the history 
of building is the history of progress from timid to courageous 
construction. 

The effect of the evolution of construction from the closely spaced massive masonry 
columns of Egypt to the high thin continuous support visible on the exterior of 
contemporary concrete buildings, together with the wide low bay or opening, has 


I2 


Interior Design. 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


already received attention. The effect of this adjustment of proportion and detail 
upon interior design is at least as far-reaching and in some ways more fundamental 
than the effect of the new proportions upon exterior designs. 

This alteration of the shape of features commences with the replacement of the 
solid masonry column, with its masonry proportions, by the reinforced concrete 
column, with its steel proportions. Inasmuch as the architect and the layman 
are imbued with traditional forms, every spectator finds it difficult to reconcile 
ideas of safety brought about by viewing masonry construction with a feeling 
of safety in looking upon the much more slender forms of steel and concrete 
construction. 

The lay mind for this reason, if for no other, is apt to dislike concrete and steel 
forms without being able to define the reason for this dislike. The contrast in form 
of the two systems is very forcibly demonstrated by comparing the interior of the 
Church of St. John, Los Angeles, California, by Pierpont & Walter Davis 
(Plate XX) with the interior of the church at Le Raincy, Paris, by A. & G. 
Perret (Plates XXV, XXVI, XXVII). The former church follows closely and 
unmistakably the traditional forms of masonry construction, and only suggests 
concrete construction to the extent to which artistic courage has allowed the 
architect to house the worshipper in broad, flat unornamented spaces which 
seem to be peculiarly suitable to the use of concrete walling. The interior of 
A. & G. Perret’s church in Paris is supported by ferro-concrete shafts which have 
not attempted to reflect the proportions of tradition columns. These shafts may 
be open to criticism. They seem to strike the vaulted roof like poles, almost 
suggesting that they will pierce the structure. It may be that, with added experience 
in the designing of work of this character, a much more satisfactory method of 
treating the junction between the ceiling and the column will be automatically 
evolved while still retaining the advantage of the small diameter and the modern 
desire for simplicity of detail. 

It seems, however, logical to endeavour to eliminate completely the column 
which is such an obvious disadvantage to a church, and to 
cover it, or any similar building, with some other system of 
support. Before the problem is satisfactorily solved no doubt 
‘many experiments will be tried. 

The church at Vincennes, by J. Marast (Plates XXX, XXXI), is one of such 
experiments where a building of considerable area is roofed in a 
very impressive manner by means of a series of ribs which 
divide the roof into panels and enable it to be carried over the 
whole area of the plan without the need for any intermediate support. This 
system of construction automatically dictates an entirely fresh scheme of 


a 13 


Columnless 
Interiors. 


Concrete 
Vaulting. 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


decoration, and in the case of the arched design for the Vincennes church the 
constructional element has necessarily become the basis for the design of the 
building. Incidentally, attention must be clearly focussed upon the fact that it is 
impossible to design such a building without a very clear knowledge of possible 
constructional forms. The details for the reinforced or mass concrete members of 
a building of this character will be so complicated and difficult that the employment 
of an expert who will be responsible for the calculations will be a necessity, but it 
must be evident that it is the architect who will decide upon the form of the structure, 
settle its architectural character and its system of ornamentation. 

The use of the slender shaft or column is not alone confined to church design. 
It has immense value in many other types of buildings, as, for instance, in Illus- 
tration 9, where a roof is required over a large area which can be supported at many 
places, but where the supports must cause as small an obstruction in plan as possible 
and must also leave a clear view of the great buildings beyond. In this case the 
column has been provided with a small square cap and crowned by a flat ceiling, 
devoid of heavy beams, producing a simple, economical, and effective system of 
construction and involving a fresh conception for the architectural treatment of the 
whole. A scheme similar in principle has been employed in a number of factory 
buildings, and has acquired the name of ‘‘ Mushroom ”’ construction. 

An illustration is given of the Shredded Wheat Factory at Welwyn 
Garden City, designed by Louis de Soissons & A. W. Kenyon 
(Plate LVIID. 

The principal advantage secured in this case is the elimination of deep beam 
projections which would obstruct the light. The column is still somewhat massive 
as a result of the loads to be carried, and there is no doubt room for the invention 
of steel and cement of even greater carrying capacity, which will allow the dimension 
of future columns to be reduced. The continuous vertical support referred to in 
Internal Vertical dealing with external design reappears in certain internal treat- 
Supports. ments and similarly has a very appreciable effect, not only upon 
the detail, but upon the type of treatment which is employed. This is apparent 
in the staircase details given in Illustrations (10) Hamburg, “‘ Gewerbehaus,”’ 
Staircase detail (Plate XXXIV); (11) Hamburg, “‘ Gewerbehaus,’’ Main Stair- 
case (Plate XXXII); and (12) Hamburg, School of Arts and Crafts, Staircase, all 
three by Fritz Schumacher (Plate LXXXVI). In each of these cases the sup- 
porting member and not the balustrade is the dominating line, having the effect 
of enlarging the scale and focussing attention upon the stairs as a whole instead 
of allowing it to wander up and down a succession of parallel flights. Fig. (12) 
suffers from a lack of finish which prevents the design from being as attractive as 
its general motif deserves. 


‘¢ Mushroom ”’ 
Construction. 


14 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Industrial and commercial buildings, however, gain as much or more than churches 

i by the elimination of all internal supports ; but whereas the church 
eer ha. usually a single story and represents an example of a problem 
cial Interiors. 8 Bf P Ae Pe Te 

previously partly or wholly solved in stone, the many-storied 
commercial building has features hitherto unknown. The possibilities of such 
a constructional system are shown in [Illustration (13), Breslau, Germany, 
Centennial Hall, Interior,.by Max Berg (Plate II), where a wonderful erection of 
domes and arches has allowed the architect to create a vast unobstructed space 
which is eminently suited to the demands of a great seated audience. 

The cantilever construction of one of the galleries is more clearly shown in Illus- 
tration (14), Breslau, Germany, Centennial Hall, Gallery Supports, by Max Berg 
(Plate IV), where the great overhang of the gallery is supported by reinforced 
concrete shapes which have a vague resemblance to weird arms of architectural 
outline. The architect of this building has not been afraid to use the constructional 
forms as a part of his design, yet it is felt that he is working as a man experimenting 
with his material and who is not yet completely familiar with the way in which it 
should be ultimately handled. Too much of the skeleton is allowed to appear and 
to mar the proportions of the whole, and it lacks the beautiful forms of the flesh, 
which ought decently to clothe the bones. With the greatest desire for truthfulness 
of design, it is quite unnecessary to show every member of the constructional system. 
Sound judgment on this point will lead to a right conception of work which should 
be displayed and work which should be hidden. 

That reinforced concrete can cover very large areas with many floors needing only 
the introduction of a small number of vertical supports is evident from a study of 
the factory building erected in Paris to the design of A. & G. Perret (Plate LIX). 
The supports in this instance appear to be reduced to an infinitesimal area. The 
whole structure is supported by a monolithic arch-rib, pressing against the floor 
beams and stanchions in such a way that each can be reduced to the smallest 
possible dimension, and thus give the maximum amount of light and air to the 
building as well as the greatest possible freedom of movement for plant and staff ; 
forming as a whole a purely practical building with an architectural atmosphere 
exceeding that of many factories built upon more commonplace lines. 

The interior of the Civic Shrine at Los Angeles, California, by J. C. Austin (Plate 
XCI), shows a roof supported by a series of concrete arches covering a wide span 
where the structure itself is made into an extremely decorative element. 

For some reason this building displays an effect of heaviness which has not been 
evident in the more airy buildings referred to in previous pages, but the combination 
of post, beam, and cantilever of arched rib and vertical clerestory is one which the 
architect has set out to handle as a result of the dictates of his system of construction 


15 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


and has turned into an effective decorative treatment by means of a system of 
modelling and painting. 

Concrete forms are the basis of the striking decoration of Grauman’s Theatre at 
Los Angeles, by William Lee Woollett (Plates LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXIX, 
XC). Great originality is displayed in the handling of the detail of this work, and 
yet it does not seek to attain this end by ignoring structure and merely applying 
superficial ornament which is unrelated to the work beneath. It is easy to 
imagine such work finished in strong colour, and thereby obtaining enhanced 
effect. 


§ 


The attraction of the old weather-beaten stone bridge has been felt by all, and 
only circumstances of irresistible force would cause the abandon- 
ment of stone as a constructional material for this purpose. These 
circumstances exist, however, firstly in connection with cost, and secondly in 
connection with large spans and heavy loads. The bridge at Welwyn Garden City, 
by Louis de Soissons & A. W. Kenyon (Plates XCV, XCVI), and the bridge near 
the Halmstad-Noissj6 railway station, Sweden (Plate XCIX), both show concrete 
designs which depart little, if at all, from the principles of bridge designs in 
stone. 

The great spans of the Ervalla Bridge, Sweden, by A. Bjérkman (Plate C), the 
bridge at Velanda, Sweden (Plate XCIX), by the same engineer, and the bridge at 
Latah Creek, Spokane, Washington (Plate XCVIII), are, however, in a different 
category. The form of all these examples marks them unmistakably as structures 
in which steel plays an important part, and they possess elements of design which 
give them an attraction to the architect. The two Swedish bridges are both old 
steel spans which have been covered with concrete for maintenance purposes, yet 
they both have a beauty of line which tends to raise them above the level of mere 
utilitarian works. The Washington example is more graceful and perhaps more 
characteristic of concrete, as well as being of greater architectural importance. 

The cantilever bridgeway, the position of the piers, and the handling of the 
subsidiary arches all suggest a knowledge of the requirements of bridge work and 
a familiarity of the architect with concrete, which not only brings success to the 
design, but also suggests to the layman that architectural appearance is by no means 
inconsistent with the production of practical and logical work. 

The combination of the arched rib and reinforced support carrying a vertical track 
lays the foundation for a very interesting architectural composition, but it is 
impossible to produce a design of this character unless there is collaboration between 
architect and engineer, or the architect has sufficient detailed constructional 


16 


Bridges. 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN: CONCRETE 


knowledge to be able to prepare a design which will have members of approxi- 
mately correct dimensions, so that detailed calculations may be made by the 
engineer without the necessity for substantial alteration in design. 

There are many indications that bridge designing is reverting to the architect, but 
it is evident that success necessitates a large amount of constructional knowledge, 
and that this knowledge will no longer be of the same empirical character as that 
required in the design of the old stone bridges, which have, in the past, been such 
picturesque and, in some cases, magnificent features of river scenery. 


§ 


Contemporary taste tends to enhance the architectural value of buildings, 
Proportion and which rely for their effect upon outline and subdivision rather than 
Subdivision. upon the application of mouldings or ornament, and for this reason 
the simplest and the most important buildings often alike possess an austerity of 
appearance which is relieved from baldness by the introduction of new forms or 
some concentrated piece of ornament efficiently placed. 

House design has reflected this attitude of mind, and in a few outstanding instances 
houses have been built which carry the ideal of simplicity to its 
utmost limits. Some of these simple facades are shown in Illus- 
trations (15) and (16), Paris, France, Private Houses, by Le Corbusier (Plate 
LXIX), where the face of the building is composed of a single broad surface, 
relieved by window openings which are carefully collected into horizontal bands 
and placed in such a way that they form in themselves a definite enrichment to 
the building. 

In the case of (16), Paris, France, Private House, by Le Corbusier (Plate 
LXIX), an overhanging bay produces a sharp square shadow which seems to 
furnish the facade to a remarkable extent, the entrance doors being similarly 
emphasised by the use of a simple square hood which gains an unusual amount of 
effect by being placed in an otherwise unbroken surface. 

The simplicity of treatment of this exterior is again found in Illustration (1), where 
there is no attempt whatever at ornament, and where the architectural character of 
the building is obtained by “* bowing ”’ the front, and thereby producing a mass 
which seems to be particularly suitable for concrete construction and to impart an 
architectural character to the building. 

Illustrations (3) and (4) are further examples of the same principle, the introduction 
in both cases of angle windows giving a touch of quaintness to the building and 
breaking down the extreme severity of the remaining portions of the composition. 

It should be noted in all these instances that the thin steel sash has been employed, 


17 


Simplicity. 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


and that it has a certain affinity of effect with the flat wall surfaces in which it is 
placed. 

The amount of money available for these buildings is extremely small, and it is 
a very great material advantage to be able to produce an attractive design with the 
smallest possible outlay. 

Squareness of outline constantly occurs in the concrete buildings which have 
recently been erected, and a very large number of illustrations 
in this book accept this as a characteristic of architectural 
expression in concrete. 

The same quality of austerity reappears in the interiors illustrated in (17) and (18), 
Paris, France, House Staircase, by Le Corbusier (Plate LXX), which show the 
treatment of a cantilever staircase in concrete in which the balustrade is formed of a 
plain thin wall which is partly structural and partly the natural staircase enclosure. 
It should be noticed, in the case of (18), that these square structural forms lend them- 
selves particularly well to the use of painted decoration and low relief modelling. 

It is, however, important to realise that simplicity and severity are by no means 
the only possible architectural qualities of concrete, and that the 
extensive use of ornament properly handled may be equally 
characteristic. Ornament used to produce strong contrast is seen to good effect 
in the main entrance to the High School, Mount View, California, by W. H. 
Weeks (Plate LXXXIII), where the centre feature has been given a broad, flat 
uninterrupted surface and has been enriched by the use of two extremely effective 
columns, representing the maximum amount of richness which it is possible to 
introduce, and which are aptly connected to the structure by the introduction of a 
modelled panel and shield in the centre of the gable. 

The principle of contrast is frequently employed in the architecture of California, 
Pea edi which still retains a strong Spanish tradition, and special attention 
Richiere’ should be directed to the design of such buildings as the Hollywood 

Terminal at Los Angeles, by Morgan, Walls & Clements (Plates 
XL, XLI), the Fine Arts Buildings, and the Monument in Balboa Park, San 
Diego, both by William Temple Johnson and Robert W. Snyder (Plates XVII, 
XVIII). The architects of these buildings have not hesitated to use a consider- 
able amount of ornament and have employed it in such a way that it becomes 
texture rather than decoration, much as the builders of perpendicular Gothic 
churches used surface carving on their masonry. The result which is obtained by 
the careful handling of relief contrasted with plain surface and severity of silhouette 
is often highly valuable and quite characteristic of certain classes of buildings. 
Ornament of this character has great possibilities. It can be cast and modelled, 
and is therefore suitable to concrete, It can be repeated without sense of monotony, 


18 


Square Domes. 


Ornament. 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


and if the modeller is able to give sufficient personal attention to the work, the 
design can be slightly varied as each piece comes from the mould and while it is 
still in a semi-plastic condition, while actual carving can be used by rapidly cutting 
the face of the material as soon as it is cast, and before it is set, finally finishing 
the enrichment with chisels and points, as would be the case in carving masonry. 

In handling a doorway, such as that to the Hollywood Terminal Building (Plate 
XLI), it may even be possible to cast a block the base of which is black aggregate, 
and the surface white aggregate, and cut away the surface as in scraffito work, 
thus producing a strong contrast not only of form, but of colour. With proper 
skill in the use of this process many combinations of colour are possible, and some 
form of scraffito may therefore become one of the frequently adopted motifs for the 
future enrichment of concrete surfaces. 

A further development in the handling of detail in concrete is shown in the 
oem churches at Le Raincy and St. Denis in Paris, both by Messrs. 
red aati A. & G, Perret (Plates XXIV, XXV, XXVI, XXVII, XXVIII, 

XXIX). The enrichment of the walls of these buildings has 
been produced from the same sets of moulds casting similar concrete members, 
the units being erected to different designs and producing buildings which have the 
same general atmosphere, but which are by no means replicas. The illustration 
shows that advantage has been taken of the unquestionable economy of repetition 
in cast work, yet the result has not been open to the condemnation of the production 
of what Mr. G. K. Chesterton describes as “a number of St. Paul’s Pups.’””’ The 
particular kind of architectural skill which has been employed in piecing together 
units of this character may be, by some, derided; but there is a very real purpose 
to be served in meeting the rigid restrictions of cost, often placed upon builders 
by lack of funds, and providing the owners with a building which has many elements 
of originality where otherwise they would be forced to erect a commonplace structure 
of no architectural attraction whatever. 

It is obvious that if the attraction of colour can be added to these buildings, if they 
can be given a texture of real interest, their artistic value will be enormously 
enhanced and they will be able to take their place as works of a high order of 
building. 


§ 


Texture in concrete must be considered in conjunction with certain inherent 
difficulties of the material as it is at present used, which have tended 
to be ignored, since they are regarded as inevitable. These diffi- 
culties are: (a) colour, (b) crazing, (c) variation in colour in the form of water-lines, 
(d) variation in texture. 


Texture. 


1g 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


It is possible, however, that the design of a concrete structure is incomplete unless 
it takes account of these factors, and so adjusts detail and ornament, they are 
likely to become invisible to the beholder. 

The first and most important is the fact that concrete, as normally made with 
Portland cement and the usual aggregates, is unpleasant in colour, and that a large 
mass of concrete tends to be unattractive for this reason alone. The second and 
next important fact is the crazing of the surface of concrete where fine cracks occur 
in the surface which are almost invisible but rapidly fill with dust, and in the majority 
of cases produces a mass of dark disfiguring line which cover the surface of the 
building or of the features which are executed in concrete and make the general 
effect exceptionally unpleasing. 

It is to be noted that a large number of the buildings which are here illustrated 
have large areas of plain surface, and that, so far as the photographs 
are concerned, there is little or no evidence of “ crazing.” 

It should be remembered that “‘ crazing ’’ is most evident in highly finished sur- 
faces and often does not occur at all in rough surfaces. This is usually explained 
by the fact that trowelling with iron tools brings the neat cement to the face of the 
work, and that the particles on the surface have, when set, a coefficient of expansion 
which differs from that of the coarse material which forms the backing. 

“ Crazing,’”’ therefore, may be partly overcome by the way in which the surface 
is treated, and a thin coat of stucco or rough-cast will probably overcome the 
difficulty. Two other possibilities, however, present themselves : one is the artificial 
production of texture, and the other the use of a considerable amount of surface 
ornament. In pre-cast work “ crazing ’’ is generally reduced, but is still a serious 
anxiety to the makers, 

Texture may be obtained in a number of ways. The first consists of the use of 
Exposed special aggregates which are mixed with the surface of the concrete 
Aggregates. and are left exposed when the work is finally set. It is simple to 
create this “‘ aggregate ’’ texture if the concrete is pre-cast, and the concrete blocks 
are produced in a factory. Coloured sands, broken stone, granite, or marble tend 
to overpower the unpleasant colour of the cement and often result in an exceptionally 
interesting surface. It is usually necessary to experiment with the aggregate and 
to obtain an attractive mixture which gives a good effect both for colour and size, 
but it is also important to ascertain that the aggregate used is of a clean character 
and does not affect the setting properties of the mixture. Many shades of red, pink, 
_ blue-grey, and green produce a material which has much of the beauty of natural 
stone and yet obtains an individuality of its own. The use of coloured marble 
chippings, broken to pass through a small sieve, gives a brilliancy to the work which 
is often absent from the stone aggregate. 


‘* Crazing.”’ 


20 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Granites, if used as aggregates, possess natural mica which forms an appreciable 
part of the concrete and brightens the general effect of the work. 

It is a drawback of some of the more expensive aggregates that they raise the cost 
of the concrete to the level of that of natural stone, and up to the present architects 
and the general public have tended to prefer the natural to the synthetic article. It 
is, however, by no means certain that stone will look better or weather better than a 
manufactured article made of first-class Portland cement and first-class aggregate, as 
the latter will be of exactly the same composition throughout, and therefore free 
from the defects which are found in all but the very finest samples of masonry. 

The use of satisfactory aggregate, both as regards colour and texture, is not always 
sufficient to produce the kind of surface which the architect requires, as the cement 
in the concrete tends to find its way to the surface and to obscure the best qualities 
of the aggregate. For this reason a number of attempts have been made to scrub 
the face of the block with bristle or wire brushes before the work is properly set, 
thus exposing the aggregate itself and roughening the surface of the concrete, so 
that “‘ crazing ’’ is non-existent, and the concrete surface avoids the unpleasantly 
smooth effect which is apparent when iron trowels are used or when blocks are cast 
in iron moulds. 

Scrubbing, however, is quite a skilled process, If it is carried out in a casting 
factory it is not so difficult, since men can be specially trained for the work and 
are subject to adequate supervision. As a result the moulds are struck at the right 
moment, according to the state of the weather, and the scrubbing can be carried as 
far as the architect desires. 

The execution of any concrete work in a factory, however, is relatively expensive 
because of the cost of transport, and attempts have therefore been made to obtain 
a satisfactory texture by scrubbing concrete which has been built in situ. 

It has, however, been almost impossible to strike the moulds at the identical 
moment which will leave the concrete safe from the dangers of settlement, of frosts, 
rain or heat, and at the same time leave them soft enough to be scrubbed equally 
over the whole face of the building. As an alternative, the face of the building 
has been covered with acid, so that the acid will eat away small 
particles of cement, leaving the aggregate exposed evenly over the 
whole facade; the surface of the work being subsequently washed with a plentiful 
supply of clean water to remove all traces of acid. 

There are, however, certain very dangerous possibilities which stand in the way 
of the use of this system, because if the building has a steel frame, or is constructed 
with reinforced concrete, any minute traces of acid left behind may be driven into 
the face of the work by the action of the weather and may seriously affect the steel 
work with disastrous results. 


Acid Treatment. 


21 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Blocks have been similarly treated with acid in the factory, and in the case of a 
building composed entirely of concrete blocks there are only those dangers in its 
use which leave it possible for the action of the acid to continue to eat away the 
cement and allow frost to attack the surface of the work. 

Experiments with colour have proceeded in other directions, the first of which 
has been the employment of coloured sands to produce coloured concrete. A very 
attractive pink was used in a house erected near Northwood by Mr. D’Arcy Bradell, 
pink sand and Atlas white cement being the material employed. 

Coloured sand or aggregate is undoubtedly the safest and most satisfactory means 
of producing colour in concrete. 

A number of coloured mediums have, however, been placed on the market for the 
purpose of producing rapidly and cheaply a coloured concrete. Some of these 
materials have not produced very satisfactory results, and it is one of the difficulties 
of their use that it is often impossible to discover whether the building will look 
well until the coloured block has been erected for some little time and has been 
exposed to the action of the weather. 

A number of experiments were recently made by Mr. R. R. Butler, M.Sc., A.I1.C., 
F.1.C., upon the use of water-bound dyes for colouring concrete. If such a process 
could be perfected it would be easy to mix the colouring material with the water 
which is to be employed for the concrete, and colouring would be cheap, easy, 
and effective. The concrete would not have to be loaded with a substantial amount 
of inert colouring matter, and therefore would be a better material. So far the 
experiments have not proved to be successful, although one extremely good colour 
(a green) appears to be a possibility. 

Apart from the treatment of surfaces with aggregates and colour is the possibility 
of using a surface coating as a rough-cast. 

A number of these finishes must be familiar to all and differ in no way from the 
treatment employed in rough-casting houses built in brick or any other material. 


§ 


Other methods of handling the surfaces of concrete buildings may be employed 
Other Surface in the future, such as the use of stucco covered with painted 
Treatments. ornament in the Pompeiian manner, or the employment of mosaic 
or marble sheeting, such as that used in the more important buildings in Roman 
and Byzantine work. There seems also much to be said for the revival of “ scrafiito,” 
which is eminently suited to the employment of coloured concrete. Bands of 
strongly contrasting ornament could be introduced into the design and carry 
considerable interest into the plain surface of the walling. 


22 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


§ 


Designing acquires a high part of its fascination because it must of necessity reflect 
Contemporary the spirit of the time in which it lives, and must become a real 
Design. expression of contemporary thought as crystallised in the minds of 
the men and women of ‘its period. 

It is an extraordinary commentary upon European history to find that the culture 
of Rome has for so many years controlled the minds of men, It would be equally 
fascinating to reflect upon the effect of the ecclesiastical domination of European 
countries throughout the Middle Ages, when civilisation was the Church and the 
Church was civilisation. That these factors existed, and that architecture reflected 
the social conditions of each period, is undeniable. Thus design in concrete must 
reflect contemporary thought. True design must conform to climatic conditions, 
to working conditions, to the principles of hygiene, to circumstances of erection 
and constructional limitation. 

Throughout the period of the Renaissance attempts have been made to use Doric, 
Ionic, and Corinthian orders in buildings which did not naturally give rise to these 
features. An almost unlimited amount of ingenuity has been expended in finding 
attractive variations of these orders and using them in such a way that they allowed 
the building to be planned for its intended purpose. It is possible that the day of 
the Renaissance is passing and that a period of more original design is at hand. It 
may be that the advent of new developments in steel and concrete were needed to 
provide an impetus of sufficient importance for the designer to cast off the restrictions 
imposed by tradition and to produce new forms and new compositions which would 
arise naturally from the whole of the conditions governing the production of 
a building. 

The immense importance of this movement it is impossible to overestimate: it 
represents a new and a live attitude towards design; it represents an amount of 
originality of thought which has not been called into being at any period since the 
Greeks evolved a perfect architecture of masonry and the Romans evolved an 
ability to solve constructional problems which to them were of unprecedented 
magnitude. 

It would appear that contemporary designers are asked to handle problems of 
constructional evolution which when studied from these viewpoints are more modern 
and more new, more complicated and almost as unknown as those of any period 
of architectural history. 

The outstanding feature of modern scientific and artistic development is, of course, 
its rapidity. In an extremely small space of time invention has followed invention. 


23 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Steel has followed cast iron, Portland cement has supplanted lime, and invention 
has invaded the realm of building and affected almost every unit which the architect 
is called upon to handle. 

This rapid development is exceedingly difficult to follow and difficult to visualise 
in its entirety and its endless ramifications. 

Tradition has for so long been a completely reliable standard that the human mind 
is somewhat at a loss when it is entirely deprived of the solid support of its well- 
known forms. Thus, of necessity, the design of concrete structures must first 
break away from all forms of imitation. It cannot still conform to either classic 
or medieval precedent and at the same time give due weight and importance to 
window space and floor heights. 

If they are to be real buildings of the twentieth century, these concrete buildings 
must develop upon lines which are in accordance with the best artistic thought of 
the period. The governing principles of the art of the present century are 
undoubtedly developing upon lines of simplicity, logic, and directness; design 
must embrace strong contrast and interesting surfaces. 

Colour is being used to an extent which has been more or less unknown for a very 
considerable period, and, above all, the best work is achieving strong personality 
which is such an outstanding feature of this age. 

No longer do nations progress as bodies of people, thinking in common, living in 
common, aiming at one and the same object. It is accepted that every man and 
every woman has an outlook which is individual, that there are differences of thought, 
differences of idea, differences of personality which in themselves are valuable and 
attractive. This attitude of mind is reflected in every walk of life, and must there- 
fore of necessity find its counterpart in building. Thus there is a real value in the 
building which is original without being eccentric, and personal design will probably 
have more and more value as this view develops. 

It is therefore of the greatest possible importance that at frequent intervals a survey 
should be made of the efforts of the individual designer to produce facades, interiors, 
colour compositions, textures, and ornament which represent his personal ideas. It 
must, under this system, be left for each architect to form his own views of the 
success or failure of contemporary work, and by means of the illustrations in this 
book it is hoped that many will be able to take stock of the development of concrete 
building for the last twenty years and to see for themselves the direction in which 
design 1s travelling ; thereafter to produce designs of their own which will add one 
‘more link in the chain of development which will lead to the complete evolution of 
modern ideals in concrete design. 


24 


ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN CONCRETE 


Note.—The illustrations in this book have been compiled by Mr. F. R. Yerbury, 
Secretary of the Architectural Association, who wishes to acknowledge his special 
indebtedness for assistance rendered him in Berlin by Dr. Werner Hegeman, in 
New York by Mr. C. H. Whittaker, and by the American Portland Cement Associa- 
tion, who placed their collection of photographs at his disposal, and to various 
architects in England and other countries who gave facilities for acquiring illustrations 
of their work or for taking special photographs. 


PLATES 


; x 


“slag xD :"YyI4y 
‘aSSO 1A WOA LHOISNV ‘A TIVHLYAFGNNHaYHVI ‘Nv Issa “TIVH ‘IVINNE.LNAD “ANVINYES ‘Nv Issa 


igonenerniananennn iE 


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‘TIVH ‘IVINNSALNAD “ANVINNED ‘Nv Isdud 


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pe 


pes 


een PLWH 


BRESLAU, GERMANY. CENTENNIAL HALL, BRESLAU. JAHRHUNDERTHALLE, 
DETAIL OF INTERIOR. TEILANSICHT DES INNERN. 


Arch.: Max Berg. 


-, 


IV 


‘NAIMea TIVO Add NAIOSNOA 
‘ATIVHLYUAGNNHUYHVI ‘Nv 1Isaad 


*suag XD 7 *YI4V 


“TTVH TIVINNALNAO 


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‘ANVINUAD ‘OV ISdad 


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"slag XD **Y4y 
*TIVH ‘IVINNELNAD OL JONVULNA “ANVINNED ‘Nv ISded 


‘ATIVHLUYUAGNOHYHV! YNZ ONVONIFALdNVH “Nv Isdad 


KOLN AM RHEIN. RHEINRESTAURANT “DIE BASTEI.” 
UMBAU EINES ALTEN FESTUNGSTURMES. NACHTAUFNAHMEN. 


COLOGNE, GERMANY. RESTAURANT BUILT 
QVER TOWER OF OLD FORT. 
Arch.: Wilhelm Riphahn 


‘NEXT EVaA-NANIHOSVIONAZAYAM 
‘UHHOSLNAG SNISUAA SAC ATIVHASSAN “OIZdIa'T 


“yosnd jJoAnDG : "yy 


“SYUAUNLOVANNVIA TOOL NVWYAD AO NOILVIOOSSV 
‘TIVH NOILIGIHXE YIvaA “ANVINUAS “OIZdIeT 


™~, 


VIII 


a 


x 
VAPRPrt reper «sy 


LEIPZIG, GERMANY. ANNUAL FAIR, ENTRANCE HALL, LEIPZIG. MESSEHALLE DES VEREINS 
EXHIBITION HALL, ASSOCIATION OF GERMAN DEUTSCHER WERKZEUGMASCHINEN-FABRIKEN. 


TOOL MANUFACTURERS. EINGANGSRAUM. 
Arch.: Baurat Pusch. 


IX 


KOLN AM RHEIN. BRUCKENSAULE AUF 
DEM MESSEGELANDE (35 m HOCH). 


COLOGNE, GERMANY. EXHIBITION STRUCTURE 
BUILT TO DEMONSTRATE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 


Arch.: Wahl & Roder. 


WEMBLEY, ENGLAND. PAVILION, WEMBLEY, ENGLAND. AUSSTELLUNGSHALLE 
BRITISH EMPIRE EXHIBITION. BRITISCHE-REICHSAUSSTELLUNG. 


Arch.: Sir John Simpson & Maxwell Ayrton. 


WEMBLEY, ENGLAND. PAVILION, WEMBLEY, ENGLAND. AUSSTELLUNGSHALLE 
BRITISH EMPIRE EXHIBITION. BRITISCHE-REICHSAUSSTELLUNG, 


Arch.: Sir John Simpson & Maxwell Ayrton. 


XII 


SIO 


ie 


WEMBLEY, ENGLAND. BRITISCHE- 


WEMBLEY, ENGLAND, BRITISH EMPIRE 
REICHSAUSSTELLUNG STADION. 


EXHIBITION STADIUM. 
Arch.: Sir John Simpson & Maxwell Ayrton. 


XIII 


RAMSGATE, ENGLAND. GARTENHAUS, 
ZIERGARTEN. 


RAMSGATE, ENGLAND. PAVILION, 
ORNAMENTAL GARDENS. 


Arch.: Sir John Burret & Partners. 


RAMSGATE, ENGLAND. PAVILION, RAMSGATE, ENGLAND. GARTENHAUS, 


ORNAMENTAL GARDENS. ZIERGARTEN. 


Arch.: Sir John Burnet & Partners. 


XV 


RAMSGATE, ENGLAND. ZIERGARTEN. 


RAMSGATE, ENGLAND. ORNAMENTAL GARDENS. 
Arch.: Sir John Burnet & Partners. 


icy 


XVI 


RAMSGATE, ENGLAND. ORNAMENTAL GARDENS. RAMSGATE, ENGLAND. ZIERGARTEN. 
Arch.: Sir John Burnet & Partners. 


XVII 


SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. SAN DIEGO, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
MONUMENT, BALBOA PARK. DENKMAL IM BALBOA PARK. 


Arch: Wm. Temple Johnson & Robert W. Snyder. 


D 


*i 


XVIII 


U.S.A. BALBOA 


KALIFORNIEN, 
KUNSTAUSSTELLUNGS-GEBAUDE. 


, 


, 


SAN DIEGO 
PARK 


, U.S.A. BALBOA 


SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA 
PARK, FINE ARTS BUILDING. 


Wm. Temple Johnson & Robert W. Snyder. 


Arch.: 


XIX 


(RR EA 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
CHURCH OF ST. JOHN. JOHANNESKIRCHE. 
Arch.: Pierpont & Walter Davis. 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
JOHANNESKIRCHE. 


CHURCH OF ST. JOHN. 


Arch.: Pierpont & Walter Davis. 


XXI 


_ 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
VINZENZKIRCHE. 


ST. VINCENT’S CHURCH. 
Arch. : Albert C. Martin. 


LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. KIRCHE 
AM WILSHIRE BOULEVARD. 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. WILSHIRE 
BOULEVARD CHURCH. . 
Arch.: Allison & Allison. 


XXIII 


LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
DOM ZU ST. PAUL. 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. 
ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL. 


Arch. : Johnson, Kauffman & Coate. 


* 


XXIV 


PARIS, FRANCE. LE RAINCY CHURCH. PARIS, FRANKREICH. KIRCHE LE RAINCY. 
Arch.: A. & Gs Perret. 


a 


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A, & G. Perret. 


Arch.: 


Vg aN ram rat Pint ed Be 

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KIRCHE LE RAINCY. 


PARIS, FRANKREICH. 


Arch.: A. & G. Perret. 


LE RAINCY CHURCH. 


PARIS, FRANCE. 


a 


XXVIT 


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KIRCHE LE RAINCY. 


PARIS, FRANKREICH. 


LE RAINCY CHURCH. 


PARIS, FRANCE. 


Arch.: A. & G. Perret. 


= 


XXVIII 


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PARIS, FRANCE. CHURCH OF ST. DENIS. PARIS, FRANKREICH. KIRCHE ST. DENIS. 
Arch.c A. cc Gs Perret, 


XXX 


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(AUSSEN MIT 
FENSTERMASSWERK 


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ZIEGELN VERKLEIDET, 


VINCENNES 


CHURCH. (OUTER 
COVERING IN BRICK, WITH CONCRETE 


VINCENNES, PARIS. 
TRACERIED WINDOWS.) 


AUS BETON.) 


Arch.: J. Marast. 


a] 


XXXI 


KIRCHE, 


VINCENNES, PARIS. 


CHURCH. 


VINCENNES, PARIS. 


Arch.: J. Marast. 


HAUPTTREPPENHAUS 


HAMBURG. 


*“* GEWERBEHAUS,” 


HAMBURG, GERMANY. 
MAIN STAIRCASE. 


IM GEWERBEHAUS. 


Arch.: Professor Fritz Schumacher. 


XXXII 


“SHSOVHHEAYEMAD SAG 
SOVHNaddaaLLdAVH WI F3XHOead “OUNEWVH 


*LIYIDUINYIS ZJl4y L0ssafold 7 *YyI4y 


“ASVOUIVLS NIVA AO ONITIEO 
«SOVHEEdIMAD, “ANVINUED ‘OUNdWVH 


F 


XXXIV 


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XXXV 


NEBENTREPPE 
(SIEBENGESCHOSSIG). 


9 


GEWERBEHAUS 


HAMBURG. 


OPEN 


” 
, 


““ GEWERBEHAUS 


STAIRCASE (SEVEN STORIES). 


+ 


HAMBURG, GERMANY 


itz Schumacher. 


Professor Fr 


. 
or 


Arch 


ANY 


AN 
unl 


i 


ieee 


CASSEL, GERMANY. OFFICE BUILDING, ENTRANCE. 
Arch.: Curt von Brocke. 


CASSEL, GERMANY. OFFICE BUILDING, 


STAIRCASE AND LANDING, 
Arch.: Curt von Brocke. 


CASSEL. BUROHAUS, EINGANG. 


CASSEL, 


BUROHAUS, INNERES DES 
TREPPENHAUSES. 


XXXVII 


= 
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: 
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4 


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ioe linde 


ORLANDO, FLORIDA, U.S.A. SAN JUAN HOTEL. ORLANDO, FLORIDA, U.S.A. HOTEL SAN JUAN 
Arch.: W.L. Stoddard. 


XXXVITII 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. WALNUT LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. GEBAUDE 
GROWERS’ ASSOCIATION BUILDING. DES WALNUSS-PFLANZERVEREINS, 


Arch.: Albert C. Martin. 


XXXIX 


NEW YORK CITY, U.S.A. AMERICAN NEW YORK CITY, U.S.A. GEBAUDE DER 
NEWS CO. BUILDING, AMERICAN NEWS CO. 
Arch. : Russell T. Cory. 


C aes ‘ 


XL 


, U.S.A. 


IN HOLLYWOOD, 


, KALIFORNIEN 


LOS ANGELES 
BUROGEBAUDE 


. 


A 


S 


HOLLYWOOD TERMINAL BUILDING. 


. 


(a) 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, 


Arch.: Morgan, Walls & Clements. 


~ 


S.A 


U. 
BUROGEBAUDE IN HOLLYWOOD. 


, KALIFORNIEN, 


LOS ANGELES 


. 


+ 


U.S.A 


CALIFORNIA, 


HOLLYWOOD TERMINAL BUILDING 


LOS ANGELES, 


Walls & Clements. 


Arch.: Morgan, 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 


ELKS’ TEMPLE, ELKS’ TEMPEL. 


Arch. : Curlett € Beekman. 


ALI 


“SNOISNAd UVM AO AULSINIW 
saq gqanyaso0und ‘GNVTIONa ‘NOCNOT 


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C 


XLIV 


. 


LONDON, ENGLAND. BUROGEBAUDE DES 
MINISTRY OF WAR PENSIONS 


, 


ACTON 


OFFICES) OF 


ENGLAND. 


, 


MINISTRY OF WAR PENSIONS 


ACTON, LONDON 


West (H.M. Office of Works). 


G 


Ife 


+ 


Arch 


suing 2» yun : ‘yup 
‘AN TOTIGOWOLNV ‘V'S'N ‘NHINYOSITVA ‘SHTADNV SOT ‘dNTIO OLAV ‘V’S'N ‘VINUOSITVO ‘SHTAONV SOT 


XLVI 


ELEKTRISCHE 
KRAFTSTATION. 


DERBY, ENGLAND. 


BEECTRICITY 


DERBY, ENGLAND. 


POWER HOUSE. 


Arthur Eaton & Son. 


. 
oe 


Arch 


XLVII 


CASSEL. KOHLENBUNKER UND KESSELHAUS. 


CASSEL, GERMANY. COAL BUNKER AND BOILER HOUSE. 
Arch.: Curt von Brocke. 


-) as 
+ ee 
overs NX 


om a ee) += 


pre 
4 


cae 
- 


XLVITII 


KOHLENBUNKER. 


COAL BUNKER. CASSEL. 


CASSEL, GERMANY. 


CASSEL. HOLZLAGER. 
Arch.: Curt von Brocke. 


LUMBER STOREHOUSE. 


CASSEL, GERMANY. 


XLIX 


“AG NYAsAOIFNENIFHHOS “TESSVO 


*ayo0ig uoa ind 3 "yoy 


SR 


‘dOHS SSYALNAdYVO ‘AYOLOVA 


“ANVIWNAD “TASSVO 


H 


*S1ZJa0g SUD 40ssafold * "YH 
‘LIVLISNVSVD ‘NHdsHuaad ‘LNVId SHYOM SVD ‘ANVWUAD ‘NACSHad 


a 


ae 


sini abc Sac: etab one iti 


rs 


KONIGSBORN, GERMANY. TURBINE HOUSE. KONIGSBORN. MASCHINENZENTRALE. 
Arch.: Professor Alfred Fischer. 


H* 


Weil 


‘NH90@ NAG HOUNdG AOIId ‘MAAMLAVAAAASSVM 


*ZANY OpuvjlC 0210 40ssaford *°Y4y 
‘(NUAAVGE) ONISNIA 


‘NOILVLS YAMOd UALVM ‘“VINVAVE “ONISNIA 


LIII 


“IVNESUV “IOM WI ATIVHNINdVA “AYVINENYG ‘NSJOVHNadOA 


“IVNASaV 


TvAOU ‘dOHS .SYALLIA ANIHOVI 


*MUVIANAG ‘NHOVHNdadOO 


LIV 


FABRIK, 


STOCKHOLM, SCHWEDEN. 


. FACTORY. 


SWEDEN 


, 


STOCKHOLM 


Arch.: Ture Sellman. 


- ‘ 


LV 


ETE | 


FRANKREICH. GARAGE. 


y} 


PARIS 


GARAGE. 


PARIS, FRANCE 


Perret. 


5 oe (Ee 


Arch. 


LVI 


*s1aUuLIDg P 144agQ[1H ‘syJOM + YI 
‘ANUAMUAASSVM ATUANS LSVA ‘GNWTONG ‘AqUaNS ‘ATTANd ‘SHUOMUALVM ATUANS LSVA “GNVTIONG ‘AdguaNS ‘AXTUNd 


< 
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2 
2 
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LVII 


“MIMGVA THAIWLOYHOS “CANVTIONA 


‘NAM TAM 


‘uoduay “MP P SuOSSIOS ap *'T 2 "Yup 
LAVLSNALYVD *AUOLOVA LVAHMA AAACACAYHS 


‘dNVTONG ‘ALIO 


NaqduaYvd NAM TAM 


2 
Hf 
= 


oe 


LVIII 


“MTedva 


THAIN.LOYHOS 


VUVERTETEETP'! 


‘usduay “AW BP suossios ap*T 7 "YI 


‘dNVIONG ‘NAMTAM LAOVLSNALYVS 


oe 


"AUMOLOVA LVAHMA CHACHYHS 


‘GNVIONG ‘ALIO NAGUYVD NAM TEM 


LIX 


‘qanyasoMlUudvsa ‘HOISUANVasA 


‘ 


slavd 


*2altad °"D P°V 2° YY 


“ONIGTING AYOLOVA “HONVAA 


‘ 


slavd 


j* 


LX 


WASSERTURM DER BAYERISCHEN 


MUNCHEN. 


WATER TOWER, BAVARIAN 


BAVARIA. 


MUNICH, 


MOTOREN WERKE. 


MOTOR WORKS 


Arch.: Professor Otto Orlando Kurz. 


CASSEL, GERMANY. OFFICE BUILDING, 


STAIRS TO ROOF. 
Arch.: Curt von Brocke. 


CASSEL, GERMANY, FACTORY, CARPENTERS’ SHOP. 
Arch,; Curt von Brocke, 


CASSEL. BUROHAUS, TREPPE ZUR 
DACHSPITZE. 


CASSEL. 


INNERES DER SCHREINEREI. 


LXII 


om 


ee 


Meese? 
Serer: 


oH ie 


ween 


EINSTEINTURM, 


POTSDAM, DEUTSCHLAND. 


EINSTEIN TOWER. 


POTSDAM, GERMANY. 


Arch.: Erich Mendelsohn. 


LXIII 


“WYN.LNIF.LSNIF 


“€NVTHOSLNAG ‘WvdsLod 


“uyosjapuayy Yyoug -*Yyoip 


‘UAMOL NIFZLSNID “ANVIAYED 


‘WVdSLOod 


mong 


\ 


fa 


» 


‘ 


dpsed arn lpeeramacthiacsboron 


es ere 


be pono 


. 


KOOTWYK, HOLLAND. 


mais 


KOOTWYK, HOLLAND. RUNDFUNKTURM. 


RADIO TOWER. 


Arch.: J. M. Luthman. 


LXV 


WUNLYaSsvVA “AUYVINEANYC 


‘ 


ONIFOCHAN 


“IqQUYy A "yoy 


“dHMOL 


FOE, 
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YaLVMmM 


“MUVIINAGC ‘ONIFO(MAN 


‘Jallad *D PY sYyuUp 
WANLSLHOISSNVY ~“HOISYMNVYA ‘A TIFONTYO 
‘dHMOL NOILVAYASHO “SAONVUd ‘ATAONTUO 


Ik 


LXVI 


EINFAMILIENHAUS 


VERSAILLES, FRANKREICH. 


Andre Lurcat. 


PRIVATE HOUSE. 


+ 


VERSAILLES, FRANCE 


Arch. 


LXVII 


“SOVHNAUITINVANID “HOISYANVasA 


‘SATTIVSUAA 


*IDIANT a4pup - "YAP 


“ASNOH ALVAIUd 


+ 


FAONVad “SATTIVSHAA 


LXVIII 


“SOVHNAITIAVANIG 


‘“HOISUANVY ‘SATTIVSHAA 


*1D04N'T alpup yop 


. 


HSNOH ALVAIYd 


TCT 


VAL UV TU) VANAN GEAR 


‘AONVUA ‘SATTIVSHAA 


'. z 


i 


PARIS, FRANCE. PRIVATE HOUSES. PARIS, FRANKREICH. EINFAM LIENHAUSER. 
Arch.: Le Corbusier. 


LXX 


“SOVHNaAddaaL 


. 


HOISYaANVas 


‘ 


slduvd 


*41918NGLOD AT 


+e 
. 


yoy 


dASVOUIVLS ASNOH 


+ 


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LXXI 


‘UsITALV GNN SNVHi 
“HOISUANVAA ‘STdvd 


101d “OD PCY 


Yop 


‘OIGN.LS GNV ASNOH 
' “HONVUd ‘STavd 


“SOVHNGITINVANIA 
‘“HOISUANVaA ‘STavd 


*‘IDIAN'T aapup : "yop 


‘daSNOH ALVAIUd 
“AONVUS ‘STUVd 


LXXII 


“CNVTONG ‘NAA TAA 


LAOVLSNALYVD 


suoduay *M ‘PY Pp suossios ap*T :*yo4p 


“dNVTIONG ‘ALIO NAGUYVD NAM TAM 


Pog ome 


ee oe: 
pg ho 


LXXIII 


“GNVTONG ‘NAMTAM LAVLISNALYVS 


*uoduay *M *P P suossios ap] : "yoy 


“GNVTIONG ‘ALIO NAGdUYVD 


NAM TAM 


LXXIV 


WELWYN GARDEN CITY, ENGLAND. GARTENSTADT WELWYN, ENGLAND. 
Arch.: L. de Sotssons € A. W, Kenyon, 


+ 


LXXV 


‘NISUYFANYNLNAN Vas 
‘NA3INYOAITVA ‘SHTHONV SOT 


‘uosIy P uosmIp *"YI4y 


"dNTO OILATHLV S.NEWOM 
‘WS'N ‘VINUOSAITVO ‘SHTIFONV SOT 


L* 


LXXVI 


“MIddva THAWLOYHOS 
“aNV TONG 
‘NAMTAM LAOVLSNALYVS 


‘uoduay “MV P SUOSSIOS' ap *'T -*Yyo4y 


ANYOLOVA LVAHM GAaCdsaaHS 
‘aNV TONG 
‘ALIO NAGHYVO NAM TAM 


“Naan. LSNVH 
‘aNVTIONA 
‘NAMTHM LAOVLSNALYVS 


‘ 


“SAVMUOOTd OILSAWOCG 
“CNV TIONG 
ALIO NadeYVD NAM TAM 


LXXVII 


Naan. LSNvH 


‘GNVTIONG ‘NAMTAM LAVLSNALYVD 


‘uoduay ‘MP 2 Suossios ap’T :*yap 


SAVMUOOCd DILSHWOdG “CNVWTIONG ‘ALIO NAGYVD NAM TEM 


LXXVIII 


*saulDf 2p jjauuay :*Yyoip *uoduay *M ’W PP suossios ap °T 2*yo4y 
‘NFYNLSNVH “GNVTIONG ‘NAMTEAM LAOV.LSNALYVO “SAVMUOOTd OILSHWOG “GCNVWIONG ‘ALIO NAGUVD NAMTAM 


CEE ST MMS LD ET 


wo i 
i es ae 1 Oe Ee ee Oe 


LXXIX 


HOHERE SCHULE, 


PIEDMONT, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 


Weeks. 


HIGH SCHOOL. 


PIEDMONT, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. 


Bo Whsdeh 


Arch. 


LXXX 


‘ATOHOS HYaHOH 


‘vS'N ‘NSINYOAITVaA “LNOWGId 


*syaam *H 


LA 


+e 


Yo 


* 


TOOHOS HOIH 


Pv 


. 


S 


nN 


‘ 


VINYOAITVO 


‘LNOWAdId 


LXXXI 


‘(GA INHOS UV.LNAWATE) ATNOHOSNOINN 


Vv 


“SyaAM “H-°M *"Ys47 
Sn ‘NSINYOSAI IVa “Tadd vo 


“TOOHOS YVAWVAD NOINN 


‘VSN ‘VINUOAITVO “TTEdd WV 


M 


LXXXII 


“syaam “HM 2*YuUp 


(@TOHOS FUAHOH) XINHOSNOINN ‘v'S'N ‘N¥INYOSITvea ‘AIWVORN TINA 


*TOOHOS HOIH NOINN ‘v’'S'’N ‘VINMOSITV) ‘AWVOEN TANG 


LXXXIII 


cena Ne er ee 


poe 


| 
| 


MOUNTAIN VIEW, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. MOUNTAIN VIEW, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
HIGH SCHOOL. HOHERE SCHULE. 


Arch.: W.H. Weeks. 


a | 


Le | 


LXXXIV 


PASADENA, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. PASADENA, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
COMMUNITY PLAYHOUSE. VOLKSHAUS. 
Arch. ; Elmer Grey. 

LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
AUTO CLUB OF LOS ANGELES. AUTOMOBIL-CLUB VON LOS ANGELES. 


Arch.: Hunt & Burns. 


* 


= 


= 


ca 


es 
s 
ya 
t 
- 
f 
= F, 
. 
= 
eo 
: 


LXXXV 


SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. SAN FRANCISCO, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
LEGION OF HONOUR. HAUS DER EHRENLEGION. 
Arch. : A. B. Applegart. 

HEALDSBURY, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. HEALDSBURY, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
HIGH SCHOOL. HOHERE SCHULE. 


Arch.: W.H. Weeks. 


LXXXVI 


HAMBURG, GERMANY. SCHOOL OF ARTS HAMBURG. TREPPENHAUS IN DER 
AND CRAFTS, STAIRCASE. KUNSTGEWERBESCHULE, 


Arch.: Professor Fritz Schumacher, 


ail 


LXXXVII 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
GRAUMAN’S THEATRE. GRAUMAN’S THEATER. 


Arch.: William Lee Woollett. 


LXXXVIII 


ace 


‘ sey 


z-4 


LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. LOS ANGELES, KALIFORNIEN, U.S.A. 
GRAUMAN’S THEATRE. GRAUMAN’S THEATER, 


Arch.: William Lee Woollett, 


LXXXIX 


“Md LVAHL S.NVIANNVYD 
‘VSN ‘NAINYOSITVa ‘SHAIZONV SOT 


‘20]}00M4 9a7T WHIT A 


+e 


youy 


. 


Ves: 


‘AULVAHL S.NVIAINVYD 
‘VINUOSITVO ‘SHTIAONV SOT 


* . 


XC 


‘AH LVEAHL S.NVINNVYD 
‘VSO ‘NAINNOSITVA ‘SHTAONV 


SOm 


*110]]00M\ 9aT WOM -Yo4y 


‘SAULVEHL SINVIANVAD 
‘WS'O ‘VINHOXITVO ‘SATHONV SOT 


“IVVSSONO TAIAVYAA ANIAHS 


BVis 0 


‘ 


NAINYOsAT TVA 


‘ 


SHTHONV SOT 


‘uljsny 


OD uyof 


yoy 
“WNIYOLIGNV SIAIO 


“ANIYHS 


‘WS’ ‘VINYOAITVO 


‘SHTZONV SOT 


n* 


ACLI 


‘“SHHSATA SdINVHOD YALVEHL “HOISUNNVadA ‘STuVd 


*JaddId “D PV 


2Yopy 


‘AU LVAHL SHASATA SdINVHO “SONVad 


ASy 
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sldvd 


ie 


AGIIT 


THEATER CHAMPS ELYSEES 


PARIS, FRANKREICH. 


CHAMPS ELYSEES THEATRE. 


PARIS, FRANCE. 


Arch.: A. & G. Perret. 


+ 


XCIV 


‘axMONUd “NAGHMHOS ‘WTIOHAOOLS 


‘uDuMyiolg *W 


+ 4aauisugq 


“NOYPNYNAS 


‘NACaIMS ‘WTIOHXAIOLS 


BRUCKE. 


GARTENSTADT WELWYN, ENGLAND. 


BRIDGE. 


WELWYN GARDEN CITY, ENGLAND. 


Arch.: L. de Soissons &€ A. W. Kenyon. 


Ne 


“1 


XCVI 


‘aAMONYNA “GNVIONG ‘NAMTEM LAOVLSNALYVO 


‘uotUay *M “PY P suossios ap *T 


yup 


aOdIedd 


+ 


CQNV'IONG 


‘ 


ALIO 


Nadavd 


NAA THA 


XCVII 


“AIUEVA MANIA NZ AMONAA “GNVIHOSLNAG 


‘AVHOVG 


*spIdalyq 2 ssdvoM 2*Yyo1p 


“AUOLOVA 


VY OL aoa 1da 


‘ANVINMAS ‘NVHOVG 


a) 


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37 


yor 


Bey 


XCVIII 


SPOKANE, WASHINGTON, U.S.A. BRUCKE UBER DEN LATAH FLUSS. 


SPOKANE, WASHINGTON, U.S.A. LATAH CREEK BRIDGE. 


XCIX 


SWEDEN. BRIDGE ON HALMSTAD-NOISSJO 
RAILWAY. 


SCHWEDEN. BRUCKE DER HALMSTAD-NOISSJO 

EISENBAHN, 
VELANDA, SWEDEN. BRIDGE. (OLD IRON VELANDA, SCHWEDEN. BRUCKE. (ALTE EISENBRUCKE 
BRIDGE EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE.) 


MIT BETON UMKLEIDET.) 
Engineer: A. Bjérkman. 


é 7 ~ ea 


‘unuysolg *p + 4aau1suq 
(LAGIZTAINN NOL LIA CHLAYONOOD NI GaqqasaEdNa 
AXNONUENYSIA ALTV) ‘ANONUT “NAGHMHOS ‘VTIVANA HOdINd NOUWI G10) ‘ANdINd “NECaMS ‘VTIVAUNA 


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